A. Although/though/even though VS in spite of/despite
1. After although, we use a subject + verb:
e.g.: We went out although it was raining.
Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.
2. After in spite of/despite, we use a noun, pronoun (this, that, what, etc) or -ing:
e.g.: In spite of the rain, we enjoyed our holiday.
She wasn’t well, but in spite of this she went to work.
In spite of what I said yesterday, I still love you.
I didn’t get the job in spite of having all the necessary qualifications.
3. We can say in spite of the fact (that) … and despite the fact (that)...:
e.g.: I didn’t get the job in spite of the fact/despite the fact that I had the qualifications.
4. Sometimes we use though instead of although
e.g.: We went out though it was raining.
Note: In spoken English, we often use though at the end of a sentence:
e.g.: The house isn’t very nice. I like the gardens though. (But I like the gardens)
5. Even though (but not even alone) is a stronger form of although:
e.g.: Even though I was really tired, I couldn’t sleep.
B. In case, in case of and if
1. We use in case to say that somebody does (or doesn’t do) something in order to guard
against a possibility.
e.g.: I’ll take an umbrella in case it rains.
Note: Do not use will after in case. Use a present tense for the future
2. In case of means ‘if a particular thing happens’/ ‘if there is… ’. (especially in notices,
etc)
e.g.: In case of fire, telephone the fire brigade..
3. In case VS if
e.g.: We’ll buy some more food in case Tom comes.
Means: Perhaps Tom will come; we’ll but some food now, whether he comes or
not.; then we’ll already have the food if he comes
We’ll buy some more food if Tom comes.
Means: Perhaps Tom will come; if he comes, we’ll buy some more food; if he
doesn’t come, we won’t buy any more food.
C. Unless, as long as and provided/providing
1. Unless means ‘except if’ or ‘if not’.
e.g.: You can’t go in unless you are a member.
(means: You can’t go in except if you are a member/…if you are not a member)
2. as long as/so long as and provided (that)/providing (that), all these expressions mean:
‘If’ or ‘on condition that’
e.g.: You can use my car as long as/so long as you drive carefully
Traveling by car is convenient provided (that) /providing (that) you have
somewhere to park.
Note: Do not use will after these expressions. Use a present tense.
D. As, when and while
1. The uses of as for reason:
as sometimes means ‘because’.
e.g.: As it was a public holiday, all the shops were shut.
We watched TV all evening as we had nothing better to do.
2. The uses of as for manner:
e.g.: They did as they promised.
Why didn’t you do it as I told you to do it?
2. The uses of as for time:
- we can use as when two things happen at the same time
e.g.: I watched her as she opened he letter. (watched and opened at the same time)
- we can use as to say that something happened as we were doing something
e.g.: Jill slipped as she was getting off the bus.
- we use as when two short actions happen at the same time.
e.g.: Jim arrived as Sue left. (He arrived and Sue left at the same time)
- we use as when two things happen together over a longer period of time.
e.g.: I began to enjoy the job more as I got used to do it.
- we can use as when two things happen at the same time
e.g.: I watched her as she opened he letter. (watched and opened at the same time)
3. as VS when or while
- We use as only if two things happen at the same time. We use when (not as) if one
thing happens after another. Compare:
e.g.: When I got home, I had a bath. (when clause happens first)
As I walked into the room, the phone started ringing.(at the same time)
- we use as (time) for actions, as + a situation usually means ‘because’.
e.g.: As were asleep, we didn’t hear the doorbell.( because we were asleep, …)
As I left school, I went to work in a shop. (When I left school, ..)
- we cannot use as for time in sentences like this. We have to use while or when.
e.g.: The doorbell rang while we were asleep.
Angela got married when she was 21.
E. As if/as though
1. we use as if/as though to say how somebody/something looks/sounds/feels,etc. or how
somebody does something.
e.g.: That house looks as if/as though it’s going to fall down.
When I told them my plan, they looked at me as if I was mad.
Note: after it looks/sounds/smells, many people use like instead of as if/as though.
e.g.: It looks like Sam isn’t coming.
2. After as if, we sometimes use the past when we are talking about the present because
The idea is not real.
e.g.: I don’t like Norma. She talks as if she knew everything.
Note: When we use the past in this way, we can use were instead of was.
e.g.: They treat me as if I were (or was) their own son. (I’m not their son)
F. and, or, but, and yet
1. Some forms joined by and and or:
e.g.: The old woman slipped and fell on the pavement. (compound verb)
The thief moved quickly and quietly. (compound adverb)
I’ll inform you if and when he comes. (compound conjunction)
We can and will succeed. (auxiliary)
He walked into the house and up the stairs. (compound prepositional phrase)
After eating dinner and taking a long nap, he felt much better. (gerund phrases)
To be or not to be, that is the question. (infinitive phrases)
Because he didn’t care for the country, and because the beach had no appeal to
him, he decided to travel during his vacation. (adverbial clauses joined)
He married a woman who was very intelligent and charming, but who couldn’t
cook at all. (adjective clauses joined)
I don’t know when he left town or why he wanted to do so. (noun clauses joined)
I’ll pick you up at eight and I’ll get you back home by midnight (independent
Clause joined)
2. and and or are sometimes used interchangeably.
e.g.: This hair cream may be used by men and/or women.
3. A compound subject joined by and requires a plural verb. However, if the compound
parts of subject are thought of as one unit, a singular verb is used. Compare:
e.g.: Mr. Ahmed and his wife are mistaken.
Bread and butter is fattening.
The modern housewife and mother wants to know about the chemicals in food.
Note: If there are three or more items are coordinated, commas separate the items.
However, a comma before the conjunction is optional
e.g.: Men, women (,) and children are welcome.
4. A compound subject joined by or, formal English requires a singular verb if the
coordinate items are singular.
e.g.: Mr. Ahmed or his wife is mistaken.
5. where there is a difference in number or person between the items in a compound
Subject joined by or, the verb agrees with the last item, in formal English.
e.g.: Mr. Ahmed or his employees are mistaken.
Mr. Ahmed or I am mistaken.
6. But, yet, are less common conjunctions that join coordinate parts of speech and less
Frequently used for joining compound verbal phrases.
e.g.: She is beautiful but dumb.
A man who has money but (or yet) does not share it, it is not worthy of respect.
No one but him could have done that.
Feeling hungry, but (or yet) not wanting to wake his wife, he tiptoed down to the
kitchen.
G. Both…and, not only…but also, either …or, neither…nor, whether…or
1. Both … and
e.g.: Both Helen and I will to Mekkah next year.
She is both beautiful and intelligent.
Gifts were distributed to (both) rich and poor alike (or as well)*
* ‘both may be omitted.
2. Not only … but also
This correlative pair expresses addition, with greater emphasis placed on the second
element. When joining two independent clauses, also may be omitted, or it may be
separated from but and placed in one of the adverbial position.
e.g.: Not only the women but the men also loved this man. (also in adverbial position)
Not only did he give everyone gifts but he invited them to a dinner party also.
(also in adverbial position at the end of the clause)
3. either … or
e.g.: Either Sally or Eva can drive you home
She will either pay for the ring or return it.
Note: whether … or is sometimes used instead of either … or.
4. neither … nor
e.g.: Neither money nor power has made him arrogant
She is neither beautiful nor intelligent.
5. Instead of neither, a negative adjective (such as no) or a negative adverb (such as
never, seldom, or rarely) may function with the first item. In such a case, or or nor
may appear with the last item.
e.g.: Although she is very rich, she owns no jewelry (n)or furs.
He has never spoken an unkind word to his wife (n)or to anyone else.
Note: The use of nor in these sentences reinforces the negation.
6. In the sense of and not, only nor occurs between negative independent clauses.
e.g.: I have never seen her since then, nor do I expect to see her again.
H. The Uses of Other Conjunctions
| CONJUNCTIONS | FUNCTIONS: | EXAMPLES: |
| After | time | She never saw him again after he left her |
| because | cause | He was fined because he was speeding. |
| since | time | He has been ill since he had his accident. |
| cause | Since the weather is so bad outside, you’d better stay here. | |
| until | time | We’ll wait inside until the rain stops. |
| whereas | cause | Whereas the rent for this property has not been paid for four months, the tenant is required to vacate the premises immediately. |
| contrast | He was very generous, whereas his brother was quite stingy. | |
| while | time | Please watch my baggage while I purchase my train ticket. |
| contrast | He would like to have a horse, while his wife would prefer a snake. | |
| Inasmuch as | cause | Inasmuch as no offer has been made to pay for the damage, our company will have to take this case to court. |
| Now (that) | time | Now that we are ready to leave, we must say goodbye to all our friends. |
| cause | Now that it has started to rain, the crops will be saved. | |
| So (that) | purpose | He traveled through half the world so (that) he might see her once more. |
| result | The furniture arrived damaged, so (that) we had to send it back. | |
| If only | condition | I could get more work done if only there weren’t so much noise. |
| Only if | condition | We will manufacture these handbags only if we can obtain the right leather. |
| As far as | Degree (extent) | As far as I’m concerned, he can do whatever he likes with the money. |
| As (or so) long as | time | I’ll remember you as long as I live. |
| condition | So long as we have no trouble with the car, we should arrive at our destination in four hours. | |
| In order that | purpose | They left very early in order that they might arrive before dark. |
| So … that | result | He was injured so badly that he had to go to the hospital. |
| Such (a) … that | result | It was such a rainy night that they decided to stay home. |
